Who are the Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj?

he Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj

 During the reign of Hadhrat Isa (A.S.) people will live an extremely peaceful life filled with prosperity and abundance. Then the wall which imprisons Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj will break and they will surge forth in large numbers.

  "But when Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj are let loose and they rush headlong down every hill" (Quran 21:97)

Who are the Ya'jooj and Majooj?

Zul Qarnain (A.S.) who was a pious and just Ruler travelled to many lands and conquered them, establishing justice and the Law of Allah therein. Allah Ta'ala provided him with all forms and material strength through which he was able to carry out his conquests and missions.

He once carried out a mission in three directions, the far west, the far east, and then in a northerly direction. It was here that he came across a tribe of people who complained to him about the tribes of Ya'jooj and Majooj which inhabited the land behind two huge mountains and often emerged from behind these mountains to perpetrate acts of anarchy and plunder among them. They requested Zul Qarnain (A.S.) to erect a barrier between themselves and the tribes of Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj so that they could be saved from their atrocities. With the material strength at his disposal, Zul Qarnain (A.S.) enlisted their physical labor and set about erecting a high wall between the two mountains. The height of the wall or its exact length is unknown. What is known is that the height of this wall reaches that of the summit of both mountains. It is made with blocks or sheets of iron, which is further strengthened by molten lead. In this manner Ya'jooj and Majooj are unable to scale the wall, or cross it, except when it is the will of Allah.

  "And when the promise of my Rabb approaces, He will level it to dust" (Quran 18:98)

They are situated in a land of ice which is hidden from our gazes and the exact location of which is unknown. Though many interpretations do exist in this respect, none of these can be said to absolute.

 Ya'jooj and Majooj are human beings and according to a narration they are from the progeny of Yafith ibn Nooh (A.S.).

 Some Ahadith...

 In a lengthy hadith by Hadhrat Nawwas ibn Sam'aan (R.A.) Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) is reported to have said:

"...Allah will send revelation upon Eesa (A.S.) that 'Such a creation of mine is now going to emerge that no power will be able to stop them. Therefore take my servants and ascend the Mount of Toor.' Then Ya'jooj and Majooj will emerge and surge forth in all their fury. When those from among them who constitute the former part of their army pass the lake of Tiberias (which is in northern Palestine), they will drink up all the water of that lake and by the time those that constitute the latter part of that same army pass the lake, they will say, "There used to be water here (long ago). When they reach the Mount of Khamr in Jerusalem, they will arrogantly proclaim: 'We have conquered the people of the earth, now we will annihilate those in the sky.' So saying they will fire their arrows towards the sky. When the arrows return to the ground they will be blood stained.

In the meantime, Eesa (A.S.) will be on the Mount of Toor with his followers. At that time the head of and ox will be as valuable as is a hundred dinars to you in this day. [This indicates the scarcity of provisions]. Faced with these hardships, Eesa (A.S.) and his followers will make dua unto Allah (to remove this calamity). As a result, Allah will cause sores to appear on the necks of each and every individual of these people which will cause their death suddenly. When Eesa (A.S.) and his followers descend from the Mount of Toor there will not be a single space on the land where the dead rotting bodies of these people is not littered, giving off a horrendous odour. Eesa (A.S.) and his followers will once more supplicate unto Allah as a result of which Allah will send down huge birds whose necks will be as thick as that of the necks of camels, and they will dump these bodies in a place where Allah wills. (According to a narration by Tirmidhi, they will be dumped at a place called Nahbal).

 Allah Ta'ala will then send down a heavy rain, the waters of which will flow in every part of the earth cleansing it thoroughly. It will rain for a period of forty days.

 The Muslims will then burn the bows and arrows of the Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj for a period of seven years.

 Allah will order the earth to yield forth its crops in abundance and there will be such blessing and prosperity that one pomegranate will be sufficient for a whole group while the peel thereof will suffice to cast a shadow over them. The milk of one camel will be sufficient for many groups while one milk giving cow will be sufficient for a whole tribe. One milk giving goat will be sufficent for a whole family..."

(Muslim)

 Hadhrat Abu Saeed Khudri (R.A.) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said:

"On the day of Qiyamah Allah will say to Adam (A.S.) to pick out the Jahannamis from his entire progeny. Adam (A.S.) will ask: 'O Rabb, who are they?'

 Allah will say: 'Nine hundred and ninety nine of a thousand are Jahannami while the one is a Jannati.'

 On hearing this the Sahaba were overtaken by fear and they asked "O Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam), who will that one Janniti be?'

 Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said: 'Do not grieve, the nine hundred and ninety nine will be Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj while you will be the Jannati."' (i.e. your numbers in relation to them will be one in a thousand).

(Bukhari and Muslim)

 Hadhrat Abdullah ibn Umar (R.A.) says that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said:

"Allah Ta'ala divided mankind into ten parts. Nine tenths constitute Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj while the remaining tenths constitutues the rest of mankind."

 Hadhrat Zainab bint Jahsh (R.A.) says: "...once Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wassallam) awoke from such a sleep that his face was red and these words were on his tongue: 'There is none worthy of worship except Allah. Destruction is upon the Arabs on account of the evil which has come close to them. Today a hole as big as this has opened up in the wall of Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj.' ..and Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) indicated the size of the hole forming a ring with his index finger and thumb."

(Bukhari and Muslim)

 Hadhrat Abu Hurairah (R.A.) narrates that every day Ya'jooj and Ma'jooj break (dig) through the wall erected by Zul Qarnain (A.S.) until they reach the end of it to that extent that they can actually see the light on the other side. They then return (home) saying that 'We will break through tomorrow.' But Allah Ta'ala causes the wall to revert to its original thickness and the next day they start digging through the wall all over again, and this process continues each day until as long as Allah wills them to remain imprisoned. When Allah wishes them to be released, then at the end of the day they will say, "If Allah wills, tomorrow we will break through." The following day they will find the wall as they had left it the previous day (i.e. it will not have returned to its orginal state) and after breaking the remaining part of it they will emerge."

 (Ahmad, Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah)

 Commenting on the above hadith, Allamah Ibn Arabi says, Three miracles are evident in this Hadith:

1.) It never occurs to these tribes that they must continue work during the night. After all, they are in such large numbers that they can easily delegate the work among themselves and work in shifts. But Allah does not allow this thought to occur to them.

 2.) It never occurs to them that they can merely cross the mountains or scale the wall, which they can do through the aid of equipment and implements wich they possess in large numbers. According to a narration by Wahab ibn Munabbah it is known that these tribes are agriculturists and artisians possessing various types of equipment.

 3.) The thought of saying "If Allah wills" never enters their minds and it will only occur to them to say it when Allah wills that they be released.

from: "Signs of Qiyamah"
by Mohammed Ali Ibn Zubair Ali

source ; http://www.islamawareness.net/Yajuj/yajooj.html

New offensive targets rebels on Aleppo's outskirts

Deaths of civilians reported in rebel-held Atareb while government blames fighters for deadly shelling elsewhere.

Syrian government forces have launched a new offensive against rebels on the outskirts of the city of Aleppo.

The fighting comes after claims by Syrian state television of at least three deaths due to opposition shelling of a district, and just two days after the Syrian army gained full control of Aleppo city.

At least six civilians were also killed on Saturday in air strikes on the rebel-held town of Atareb, west of Aleppo, according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.

The SOHR, a UK-based information office that has been documenting human-rights abuses in Syria, said at least two children were among the dead.

The SOHR could not immediately specify who had carried out the air raids, but Russian and government warplanes typically carry out raids in Aleppo province.

An AFP correspondent in Atareb said military aircraft could be seen circling above the town and a nearby village throughout the day.

Al Jazeera's Hashem Ahelbarra, reporting from Turkey's Gazientep near the border with Syria, said the new wave of air strikes were concentrated on eastern, southern and northern outskirts of Aleppo, appearing to be aimed at keeping rebel forces away from the recaptured city.

"People are concerned because there are thousands of civilians who are still trapped on the outskirts of Aleppo, particularly those who have been evacuated from eastern Aleppo," he said.

"If the fighting continues, that could further exacerbate the situation."

Russia launched its air war in support of President Bashar al-Assad's forces in September 2015, marking a major turning point in the government's fight against armed opposition groups.

In another Aleppo-related development, Syrian state TV said an explosion caused by a device left inside a school by rebels rocked the eastern part of the city on Saturday as some residents were returning to their homes.

State news agency SANA said the school had been transformed into "an ammunitions and explosive devices warehouse left behind by terrorist groups in the Sukkari neighbourhood".

Citing a police source, SANA said another 33 people were wounded in the blast, four of them critically, but did not specify whether they were civilians or government troops.

A correspondent for Lebanon's Hezbollah-run Al Manar TV was reporting live from the area when the blast sounded in the background, sending a huge cloud of dust into the air.

The correspondent later said that at least three people were killed.

The SOHR reported two deaths in the Sukkari warehouse, but said the blast took place as army troops were dismantling explosives.

It said one other person was killed when an explosive devide detonated inside a home in the Ansari district.

Elsewhere in Syria, the Damascus water authority  said  late on Friday that it had resorted to using water reserves to meet the city's demands.

The authority accused rebels who control territory northwest of the Syrian capital of contaminating the water's source, al-Fija spring.

The water authority said it expected the problem to be resolved in a "few days".

Syrian government forces and allied paramilitaries entered eastern Aleppo on Thursday after the last residents and opposition fighters were evacuated from the enclave under a Turkish-Russian deal.

The evacuees left for areas under control of rebels in the western Aleppo countryside and Idlib in northwestern Syria.

The pullout has given Assad's forces full control over Aleppo, which had been divided between his government and opposition fighters since 2012.


source : http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/offensive-targets-rebels-aleppo-outskirts-161224140539925.html

Islam in Libya

Most Libyans adhere to the Sunni branch of Islam, which provides both a spiritual guide for individuals and a keystone for government policy. Its tenets stress a unity of religion and state rather than a separation or distinction between the two, and even those Muslims who have ceased to believe fully in Islam retain Islamic habits and attitudes. The post-revolution National Transitional Council has explicitly endeavored to reaffirm Islamic values, enhance appreciation of Islamic culture, elevate the status of Qur'anic law and, to a considerable degree, emphasize Qur'anic practice in everyday Libyan life with legal implementation in accordance to Islamic jurisprudence known as sharia.

History of Islam in Libya

During the seventh century, Muslims, who were spreading their faith, reached Libya to spread the message. The urban centers soon became substantially Islamic, but widespread conversion of the nomads of the desert did not come until after large-scale invasions in the eleventh century by Bedouin tribes from Arabia and Egypt.

A residue of pre-Islamic beliefs blended with the Islam of the Arabs. Hence, popular Islam became an overlay of Quranic ritual and principles upon the vestiges of earlier beliefs—prevalent throughout North Africa—in jinns (spirits), the evil eye, rites to ensure good fortune, and cult veneration of local saints. The educated of the cities and towns served as the primary bearers and guardians of the more austere brand of orthodox Islam.

Saints and brotherhoods

Islam as practiced in North Africa is interlaced with indigenous Berber beliefs. Although the orthodox faith preached the unique and inimitable majesty and sanctity of God and the equality of God's believers, an important element of North African Islam for centuries has been a belief in the coalescence of special spiritual power in particular living human beings. The power is known as Barakah, a transferable quality of personal blessedness and spiritual force said to lodge in certain individuals. Those whose claim to possess barakah can be substantiated—through performance of apparent miracles, exemplary human insight, or genealogical connection with a recognized possessor—are viewed as saints. These persons are known in the West as marabouts, a French transliteration of al murabitun (those who have made a religious retreat), and the benefits of their baraka are believed to accrue to those ordinary people who come in contact with them.

The cult of saints became widespread in rural areas; in urban localities, Islam in its orthodox form continued to prevail. Saints were present in Tripolitania, but they were particularly numerous in Cyrenaica. Their baraka continued to reside in their tombs after their deaths. The number of venerated tombs varied from tribe to tribe, although there tended to be fewer among the camel herders of the desert than among the sedentary and nomadic tribes of the plateau area. In one village, a visitor in the late 1960s counted sixteen still-venerated tombs.

Coteries of disciples frequently clustered around particular saints, especially those who preached an original tariqa (devotional "way"). Brotherhoods of the followers of such mystical teachers appeared in North Africa at least as early as the eleventh century and in some cases became mass movements. The founder ruled an order of followers, who were organized under the frequently absolute authority of a leader, or shaykh. The brotherhood was centered on a zawiya (pl., zawaya).

Because of Islam's austere rational and intellectual qualities, many people have felt drawn toward the more emotional and personal ways of knowing God practiced by mystical Islam, or Sufism. Found in many parts of the Muslim world, Sufism endeavored to produce a personal experience of the divine through mystic and ascetic discipline.

Sufi adherents gathered into brotherhoods, and Sufi orders became extremely popular, particularly in rural areas. Sufi brotherhoods exercised great influence and ultimately played an important part in the religious revival that swept through North Africa during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In Libya, when the Ottoman Empire proved unable to mount effective resistance to the encroachment of Christian missionaries, the work was taken over by Sufi-inspired revivalist movements. Among these, the most forceful and effective was that of the Senussi, which extended into numerous parts of North Africa.

Senussi

The Senussi movement was a religious revival adapted to desert life. Its zawaayaa could be found in Tripolitania and Fezzan, but Senussi influence was strongest in Cyrenaica. The Senussi's first theocracy was in the city of Bayda, located in Cyrenaica, and that was the center for them in 1841. After the Italian occupation, the focus turned from government to seminary education and then to the creation of an Islamic University which became in 1960 the University of Mohammed bin Ali al-Sanusi. The arrival of Muammar Gaddafi's rule changed the course of the university. It is now known as the Omar Al-Mukhtar University. Rescuing the region from unrest and anarchy, the Senussi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people a religious attachment and feelings of unity and purpose.

The Senussis formed a nucleus of resistance to the Italian colonial regime (see Italian Colonialism, ch. 1). As the nationalism fostered by unified resistance to the Italians gained adherents, however, the religious fervor of devotion to the movement began to wane, particularly after the Italians destroyed Senussi religious and educational centers during the 1930s. Nonetheless, King Idris, the monarch of independent Libya, was the grandson of the founder of the Senussi movement, and his status as a Senussi gave him the unique ability to command respect from the disparate parts of his kingdom.

Despite its momentary political prominence, the Senussi movement never regained its strength as a religious force after its zawaayaa were destroyed by the Italians. A promised restoration never fully took place, and the Idris regime used the Senussi heritage as a means of legitimizing political authority, rather than of providing religious leadership.


After unseating Idris in 1969, the revolutionary government placed restrictions on the operation of the remaining zawaayaa, appointed a supervisor for Senussi properties, and merged the Senussi-sponsored Islamic University with the University of Libya. The movement was virtually banned, but in the 1980s occasional evidence of Senussi activity was nonetheless reported. Senussi inspired activists were instrumental in freeing Cyrenaica from Gaddafi's control during the Libyan Civil War.

Islam in Gaddafi's Libya

Under the revolutionary Gaddafi government, the role of orthodox Islam in Libyan life became progressively more important. Muammar al-Gaddafi was a highly devout Muslim, with an expressed desire to exalt Islam and to restore it to its proper—i.e., central—place in the life of the people. He believed that the purity of Islam had been sullied through time, particularly by the influence of Europeans, both during and after the colonial period, and that Islam's purity must be restored by such actions as: the restoration of sharia to its proper place as the basis of the Libyan legal system, the banning of "immodest" practices and dress, and the symbolic purification of mosques.

Gaddafi also believed in the value of the Quran as a moral and political guide for the contemporary world, as is evident from his tract, The Green Book, published in the mid-1970s (see The Green Book, ch. 4). Gaddafi considered the first part of The Green Book to be a commentary on the implications of the Quranic injunction that human affairs be managed by consultation. For him, this meant direct democracy, which is given "practical meaning" through the creation of people's committees and popular congresses. Gaddafi felt that, inasmuch as The Green Book was based solely on the Quran, its provisions should be universally applicable—at least among Muslims.

Soon after taking office, the Gaddafi government showed itself to be devoutly conservative by closing bars and nightclubs, banning entertainment deemed provocative or immodest, and making use of the Muslim calendar mandatory. The intention of reestablishing sharia was announced, and Gaddafi personally assumed chairmanship of a commission to study the problems involved. In November 1973, a new legal code was issued that revised the entire Libyan judicial system to conform to the sharia, and in 1977 the General People's Congress (GPC—see Glossary) issued a statement that all future legal codes would be based on the Quran.

Among the laws enacted by the Gaddafi government were a series of legal penalties prescribed during 1973 which included the punishment of armed robbery by amputation of a hand and a foot. The legislation contained qualifying clauses making its execution unlikely, but its enactment had the effect of applying Quranic principles in the modern era. Another act prescribed flogging for individuals breaking the fast of Ramadan, and yet another called for eighty lashes to be administered to both men and women guilty of fornication.

In the early 1970s, Islam played a major role in legitimizing Gaddafi's political and social reforms. By the end of the decade, however, he had begun to attack the religious establishment and several fundamental aspects of Sunni Islam. Gaddafi asserted the transcendence of the Quran as the sole guide to Islamic governance and the unimpeded ability of every Muslim to read and interpret it. He denigrated the roles of the ulama, imams, and Islamic jurists and questioned the authenticity of the hadith, and thereby the sunna, as a basis for Islamic law. The sharia itself, Gaddafi maintained, governed only such matters as properly fell within the sphere of religion; all other matters lay outside the purview of religious law. Finally, he called for a revision of the Muslim calendar, saying it should date from Muhammad's death in 632, an event he felt was more momentous than the hijra ten years earlier.

These unorthodox views on the hadith, sharia, and the Islamic era aroused a good deal of unease. They seemed to originate from Gaddafi's conviction that he possessed the transcendent ability to interpret the Quran and to adapt its message to modern life. Equally, they reinforced the view that he was a reformer but not a literalist in matters of the Quran and Islamic tradition. On a practical level, however, several observers agreed that Gaddafi was less motivated by religious convictions than by political calculations. By espousing these views and by criticizing the ulama, he was using religion to undermine a segment of the middle class that was notably vocal in opposing his economic policies in the late 1970s. But Gaddafi clearly considered himself an authority on the Quran and Islam and was not afraid to challenge traditional religious authority. He also was not prepared to tolerate dissent.

The revolutionary government gave repeated evidence of its desire to establish Libya as a leader of the Islamic world. Moreover, Gaddafi's efforts to create an Arab nation through political union with other Arab states were also based on a desire to create a great Islamic nation. Indeed, Gaddafi drew little distinction between the two.

The government took a leading role in supporting Islamic institutions and in worldwide proselytizing on behalf of Islam. The Jihad Fund, supported by a payroll tax, was established in 1970 to aid the Palestinians in their struggle with Israel. The Faculty of Islamic Studies and Arabic at the University of Benghazi was charged with training Muslim intellectual leaders for the entire Islamic world, and the Islamic Mission Society used public funds for the construction and repair of mosques and Islamic educational centers in cities as widely separated as Vienna and Bangkok. The Islamic Call Society (Ad Dawah) was organized with government support to propagate Islam abroad, particularly throughout Africa, and to provide funds to Muslims everywhere. The symbolic purification major urban mosques took place in 1978.

Gaddafi was forthright in his belief in the perfection of Islam and his desire to propagate it. His commitment to the open propagation of Islam, among other reasons, caused him to oppose the Muslim Brotherhood, an Egyptian-based fundamentalist movement that used clandestine and sometimes subversive means to spread Islam and to eliminate Western influences. Although the Brotherhood's activities in Libya were banned in the mid-1980s, it remained present in the country maintaining a low profile. In 1983 a member of the brotherhood was executed in Tripoli, and in 1986 a group of Brotherhood adherents was arrested after the murder of a high-ranking political official in Benghazi. The Muslim Brotherhood had spread throughout Libya, but were particularly strong in the cities of Benghazi, Bayda, Derna and Ajdabiya. Gaddafi challenged the Brotherhood to establish itself openly in non-Muslim countries and promised its leaders that, if it did, he would financially support its activities. No support was ever forthcoming.


Gaddafi stressed the universal applicability of Islam, but he also reaffirmed the special status assigned by Muhammad to Christians. He likened Christians to misguided Muslims who strayed from the correct path. Furthermore, Gaddafi assumed leadership of a drive to rid Africa of Christianity as well as of the colonialism with which he associated it, despite the fact that Christianity's presence in Libya long predates Islam or its presence in much of Europe.

Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent

The only son of Selim I, Suleyman I was born on November 6th 1494 at Trabzon (Black Sea coast of Turkey). At the age of 26 he became the 10th sultan of the Empire in 1520 and is known as "Kanuni", the Lawgiver, in his homeland, but for Europeans he has always been "Suleyman the Magnificent". During the course of his substantial extension of the Ottoman Empire he captured Belgrade in 1521 and Rhodes 1522, forcing the Knights of St. John to leave for Malta, defeated and killed King Lewis of Hungary at Mohacs in 1526, taking Buda (Budin) in 1529 and unsuccessfully besieging Vienna in September and October of that year, and Transylvania came into his possession in 1562. His domain extended far to the eastward and into Egypt and Persia, while his fleet was master of the Red Sea (including Yemen and Aden) and virtually the whole of the Mediterranean, waging war on the coasts of North Africa, Italy and Dalmatia under the command of its fearsome admiral Barbarossa.

Within the Empire Süleyman was responsible for transforming the army and the judicial system. Süleyman himself was a poet and accomplished goldsmith. Suleyman died on September 6th 1566 during the war with Austria outside Szigetvar in Hungary led by his Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, which two days later fell to the Ottomans. During the siege, Austrian army didn't come to help the Hungarians so they had to defend their castle heroically but desperately. After Suleyman's death, he was taken back to Istanbul and was buried in the largest of Sinan's mausoleum situated within the complex of the Suleymaniye Mosque.

Suleyman the Magnificent ruled the Ottoman Empire for 46 years between 1520 - 1566 and doubled his territory. This was a rising period for Istanbul, as it was for the whole Empire. Many valuable buildings were constructed during this period which survived until our days with no or little damage thanks to the great architect Sinan. The city was restored with a better plan including new dams, aqueducts and fountains, theological schools (medrese), caravanserai, Turkish baths, botanical gardens and bridges. The port of Golden Horn, of which the surveillance was made from Galata Tower, became one of the busiest ports. Some of the important monuments and mosques built during this period are: Suleymaniye Mosque and annexes, Sehzadebasi Mosque and establishments, Sultan Selim Mosque and establishments, Cihangir Mosque and Haseki establishments and baths built on behalf of the Hurrem Sultan (the only loved wife of the Sultan).

Istanbul had a detailed city plan for reconstruction during this time. Migration was prohibited. Building houses around the city wall was prohibited. Coffee houses were introduced to Istanbul during this period.

He was succeeded by his son Selim II.

Hurrem Sultan (Roxelane)

Wife of Suleyman, The Magnificent (ca 1558). One of the most outstanding examples of powerful women in the Ottoman Empire, Hurrem initiated the era of the "Sultanate of Women".

Like other members of the Harem from which she rose to power, Hurrem was originally a foreign girl, named Aleksandra Lisowska, born in Rohatyn city of the Kingdom of Poland back then which is in Ukraine today. She was abducted as a slave girl after one of Suleyman's expeditions in the 1520's. Soon after she entered the Harem, she routed her competition for Suleyman's affections, and persuaded him to marry, after which her influence grew increasingly. Her son Selim (The Sot), became the next Sultan, one of the Ottoman Empire's worst. Some have even speculated the Selim sprang not from Suleyman's loins, but from a passionate indiscretion on the part of the Hurrem. Besides Selim, she mothered three children who survived to adulthood; Bayezid (son), Mihrimah (daughter), and another son Cihangir (who was physically handicapped, which prohibited his ascension to the throne by law).

When she died in 1558, she was buried in a large mausoleum next to her husband in the Suleymaniye Mosque complex in Istanbul.

Mihrimah Sultan

The only daughter of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent by Hurrem Sultan, she was born around 1522. Suleyman adored his daughter, and complained with her every wish. Mihrimah Sultan was well educated. She married Rustem Pasha, Governor of Diyarbakir, who was shortly afterwards appointed as Grand Vizier. According to the Ottoman historians, Hurrem, Mihrimah and Rustem Pasha conspired to bring about the death of Sehzade (prince) Mustafa, who stood in the way of Mihrimah Sultan's influence over her father. Indeed her letters and other sources demonstrate that she took over her mother's tomb in Suleymaniye in Istanbul.

The fact that Mihrimah encouraged her father to launch the campaign against Malta, promising to build 400 galleys at her own expense; that like her mother she wrote letters to the King of Poland; and that on her father's death she lent 50.000 gold sovereigns to Sultan Selim to meet his immediate needs, illustrate the political power which she wielded. She possessed a vast fortune, and the complex which master architect Sinan built for her on the waterfront at Uskudar (Scutari) between 1540-48 is one of Istanbul's foremost monuments and is a reflection of her charitable personality. The complex originally consisted of a mosque, medresse (theological school), primary school, mental hospital, and imaret, but the latter two buildings are not standing today. Mihrimah Sultan also had a palace built for herself near the complex in Uskudar. Another mosque built for Mihrimah Sultan again by architect Sinan at Edirnekapi district of Istanbul represents the culmination of Ottoman single-domed mosques. With its abundant windows and graceful decoration, this mosque is reminiscent of a palace or kiosk (pavilion). A fountain, medresse and hammam (Turkish Bath) complete this mosque's complex. Another of Mihrimah's social works was for repairs to the Ayn Zubayda water system at Mecca, its extension into the city, and the construction of cisterns and reservoirs. Her power and influence make Mihrimah Sultan the most famous and powerful of all Ottoman princesses.

Source : http://www.allaboutturkey.com/suleyman.htm

Mosul battle: 'Iraqi forces' tortured and killed villagers

Federal police forces were involved in operations around Qayyarah in late October

Men dressed in Iraqi federal police uniforms are reported to have tortured and killed residents of villages south of Mosul, Amnesty International says.
Evidence gathered by the group suggests up to six people from the Shura and Qayyarah sub-districts were shot dead after being detained on suspicion of having ties to so-called Islamic State.
The federal police forces command has denied the accusations.

Pro-government forces launched an offensive to retake Mosul last month.
About 50,000 Iraqi security forces personnel, soldiers, police, Kurdish Peshmerga fighters, Sunni Arab tribesmen and Shia militiamen are involved in the three-week operation.
On Thursday, troops were reportedly consolidating gains made in the eastern outskirts of Mosul, which they entered nine days ago amid fierce resistance.
Meanwhile, 30km (20 miles) to the south, army units retook a village near the site of the ancient city of Nimrud, where monuments were destroyed by IS last year.

• Mass graves reveal IS horrors
• The battle for Mosul so far
• On schedule but not exactly to plan
• Satellite images reveal IS barricades
• Images show IS Mosul airport damage

Amnesty researchers visited the locations where the extrajudicial executions are alleged to have taken place as IS militants retreated, taking with them hundreds of women, children and old men apparently for use as human shields.

According to information they obtained, about 10 men and a 16-year-old boy who escaped being forcibly transferred by IS were tortured after handing themselves over to a small group of men wearing police uniforms in the Nus Tal area on 21 October.

The men were taken on foot to an open desert area, where they were allegedly beaten with cables and rifle butts, punched and kicked, and had their beards pulled. One man had his beard set alight. They were also made to lie on their stomachs and shots were fired between their legs.

Three men were then separated from the group. Amnesty said men in police uniforms then subjected them to particularly brutal beatings before shooting them dead. Their remains were found in the same area five days later.
The body of a fourth man, who was handcuffed and led away by a group of men in police uniforms after being beaten, was discovered nearby almost a week later, according to Amnesty.
Also on 21 October, another young man was found dead with two bullet wounds shortly after he left a house near the Mishraq sulphur factory, which IS fighters set alight before retreating. He was blindfolded with his torso exposed.

Amnesty said the sixth man was apparently shot dead as he ran towards forces that included men in police uniform while pulling up his clothes to show that he had no explosives.

"When the Mosul military operation began, Prime Minister Haider al-Abadi made clear that violations by Iraqi armed forces and its allies would not be tolerated. Now is the time for him to prove just that," said Lynn Maalouf, deputy director for research at Amnesty's Beirut office.
"The Iraqi authorities must immediately investigate these alarming reports of extrajudicial executions and torture," she added.

Up to 1.5 million civilians are believed to be living in and around the city of Mosul

A statement issued by the Command of the Federal Police Forces denied its officers had killed the six villagers, stressing its full commitment to adhere to Mr Abadi's order to protect civilians and their property.

Officers had provided aid and medical support to those affected by the fighting, and had rescued 10,000 families being used by IS as human shields, it added.

Meanwhile, residents of Mosul told the Reuters news agency that IS militants had killed at least 20 people in the past two days for passing information to the enemy.

Five crucified bodies were reportedly put on display at a road junction on Tuesday, while other bodies were seen hanging from electricity poles and traffic lights.

Source : http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37930402

Islam in Kenya

The Great Mosque of Gedi

Islam is the religion of approximately 11.1 percent [1] of the Kenyan population, or approximately 4.3 million people. The Kenyan coast is mostly populated by Muslims. Nairobi has several mosques and a notable Muslim population.

The vast majority of Muslims in Kenya follow the Sunni Islam of Shafi school of jurisprudence. There are also sizeable populations of Shia and Ahmadi adherents.[2] In large part, Shias are Ismailis descended from or influenced by oceanic traders from the Middle East and India. These Shia Muslims include the Dawoodi Bohra, who number some 6,000-8,000 in the country.[3]

Historical overview
Islamic arrival on the Swahili Coast

Pioneer Muslim traders arrived on the Swahili Coast around the eighth century. The tension surrounding the succession of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, and the already established trade links between the Persian Gulf and the Swahili Coast were some of the factors leading to this development.

Archaeological evidence attests to a thriving Muslim town on Manda Island by the Tenth Century AD.[4] The Moroccan Muslim traveller, Ibn Battuta, visiting the Swahili Coast in 1331 AD, reported a strong Muslim presence. Ibn Battuta said: The inhabitants are pious, honourable, and upright, and they have well-built wooden mosques.[5]

On arrival, the Muslims settled along the coast, engaging in trade. The Shirazi intermarried with the local Bantu people resulting in the Swahili people, most of who converted to Islam. Swahili, structurally a Bantu Language with heavy borrowings from Arabic, was born.[6]

Primarily, Islam spread through the assimilation of individuals, with the Arab Muslims who had settled in small groups maintaining their culture, and religious practices. Despite encountering local communities, Islam was not ‘indigenized’ along the patterns of the local Bantu communities. Nevertheless, Islam grew through absorption of individuals into the newly established Afro-Arabic Muslim communities. This resulted in more ‘Swahilization’ than Islamization.[7]

There was strong resistance toward Islam by the majority of communities living in the interior. The resistance was because conversion was an individual act, leading to detribalization and integration into the Muslim community going against the socially acceptable communal life.[7]

Islam on the Swahili Coast was different from the rest of Africa. Unlike West Africa where Islam was integrated to the local communities, the local Islam was ‘foreign’; the Arab-Muslims lived as if they were in the Middle East.

The primary concern for the early Muslims was trade with a few interested in propagating Islam. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th Century interrupted the small work in progress. On the other hand, the interstate quarrels that ensued meant that much effort was now directed towards restoring normality and not Islamization.[8]

The spread of Islam into the interior

Islam remained an urban and coastal phenomenon. The Spread of Islam was low-keyed with no impact amongst the local non-Swahili African Community. There were no intermediary Africans to demonstrate that, adoption of a few Islamic institutions would not disrupt society.[9]

The spread of Islam to the interior was hampered by several factors: for instance, the nature of the Bantu society’s varied beliefs, and scattered settlements affected interior advancement. Other factors included, harsh climatic conditions, the fierce tribes like the Maasai, tribal laws restricting passage through their land, health factors, and the lack of easy mode of transportation.[10] For Trimingham, the brand of Islam introduced to the region was equally to blame.

Muslim traders were not welcome in the social structures thereby impeding any meaningful progress until the beginning of European occupation.

Other factors affecting Islamic movement into the interior included; atrocities committed during slave trading, as these unfavourably affected the spread of Islam.[11] In addition, the embracing of Islam by large portions of coastal tribes in the Nineteenth Century aided in its spread.

Besides, local Muslim preachers and teachers played major roles in teaching religion (Ar. dīn) and the Qur’ān at the Qur’ān Schools (Swa. vyuo) and Madrasa attached to the Mosques.[12]

The coming of the second wave of Europeans, in the Nineteenth Century, brought mixed fortunes to the coastal Muslims, their strong sense of pride and belonging was greatly diminished, with efforts being redirected to self adjustments.[13]

Nonetheless, Muslim agents deployed by Europeans as subordinate labourers to assist in the establishment of Colonial administration centres, were advantageously placed throughout the country, bringing the Islamic influence to the interior.Each place where a European installed himself, military camp, government centre, or plantation, was a centre for Muslim influence.[11]

In the interior, the Muslims neither integrated nor mingled with the local communities, yet, non-Swahili Africans began joining the Swahili trends in trade with some returning as Muslims. Swahili became the trade and religious language. Alongside the interpersonal contacts, intermarriages also yielded some conversions.

Although coastal rulers did not send missionaries to the interior, local Africans embraced Islam freely through attraction to the religious life of the Muslims. Close integration with the local population helped to foster good relations resulting in Islam gaining a few converts, based on individual efforts.[14]

Subjectively, most of the surrounding Bantu communities had a close-knit religious heritage, requiring strong force to penetrate. The pacification and consolidation by European powers provided the much-needed force to open up the communities for new structures of power and religious expression (Trimingham:1983:58).

Basically, progress in the spread of Islam in Kenya came between 1880 and 1930. This was when most social structures and the African worldviews were shattered, leaving them requiring a new, wider worldview encompassing or addressing the changes experienced.

Consequently, Islam introduced new religious values through external ceremonial and ritualistic expressions, some of which could be followed with no difficulty.

Socio-culturally, Muslims presented themselves with a sense of pride and a feeling of superiority. Islamic civilization was identified with the Arab way of life (Ustaarabu), as opposed to ‘barbarianism’ (Ushenzi) hence the domination of a form of Arabism over the local variety of Islam.[15]

The ease, with which Islam could be adopted, meant adding to the indigenous practices, new religious rites and ceremonies to the African ways, with new ways of defining one’s identity by new forms of expression. Mingling with Muslims led to conversion meaning returning home as Muslims and not aliens.[15] Lacunza-Balda shows that Islam could be adopted easily.

Although most of the conversions were of individuals, there were communities that embraced Islam en-masse. Some of these included the Digo and Pokomo of the Lower Tana region. From these communities Islam slowly penetrated inland.

Organized Missionary activities

Pioneer Muslim missionaries to the interior were largely Tanganyikans, who coupled their missionary work with trade, along the centres began along the railway line, such as, Kibwezi, Makindu and Nairobi.

Outstanding amongst them was Maalim Mtondo, a Tanganyikan credited with being the first Muslim missionary to Nairobi. Reaching Nairobi at the close of the Nineteenth Century, he led a group of other Muslims, and enthusiastic missionaries from the coast to establish a ‘Swahili village’ in the present day Pumwani.

A small mosque was built to serve as a starting point and he began preaching Islam in earnest. He soon attracted several Kikuyus and Wakambas, who became his disciples.[14]

Local men converted and having learned from their teachers took up the leadership of religious matters. Khamis Ngige was a prominent local convert of the early outreach. Having learned from Maalim Mtondo, he later became the Imam of the Pumwani Mosque. Different preachers scattered in the countryside from 1900 to 1920, introducing Islam to areas around, Mt. Kenya, Murang’a, Embu, Meru, Nyeri and Kitui. This serious missionary move interior was out of personal enthusiasm with the influence being highly localized. Only a few Africans were converted, and the impact was short lived.[16]

Islam in Western Kenya

Muslim traders introduced Islam to the western region between 1870 and 1885. The chief Mumia of Nabongo accorded the Swahili traders warm welcome. During an intertribal war, the Muslims assisted Chief Mumia to overcome his enemies. In return, one Idd day, Chief Mumia, his family and officials of his court converted to Islam. Henceforth, Islam spread to the surrounding areas of Kakamega, Kisumu, Kisii and Bungoma.

The Influence and the new trends in Islamic outreach Although the struggle for independence in Kenya was a very crucial time for all Kenyans, very little is documented on Muslim’s participation. Given that there were Muslims involved in the negotiation for the inclusion of the Kadhi courts in the Independent Kenya’s constitution, points to key Muslim involvement.

Events in the Muslim world from the nineteen-nineties, the experiences of crises and failures, power and success served as catalysts for the reassertion of Islam in public and private world, through a call for a return to true Islam. John Esposito sees the goal for the revivalisms as transformation of the society through Islamic formation of individuals at the grass roots (1999:20).

The growing religious revivalism in personal and public Islamic life, created awareness on Islamic beliefs, culminating to increased religious observance, building of mosques, prayer and fasting, proliferation of religious programming, publications, and emphasis on Islamic dress and values. Lately, Islamic reassertion in public life, like the quest for the upgrading of the Kadhi Courts in Kenya have not gone unnoticed (Esposito:1999:9).

Contemporary Islamic activisms are indebted to the ideology and organizational model of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhoods (Ikhwhan) led by Hassan al-Banna and Sayyid Qutb; and the Islamic Society Jamaat-I-Islami led by Mawlana Abul ala Mawdudi. Their ideas and methods of revivalism are observed in different parts of the world today. They blamed the west for misleading the Muslim leaders and the Muslim leaders for blindly following the European ways.

Whereas the Qur’ān and Hadith are fundamental, in responding to the demands and challenges of modernity, revival movements are crucial in spreading and restoring true Islam. Prolonged Muslim awareness has led to attraction to Islam, giving the converted a sense of pride.

Methods used in recent trends of Islamization, are twofold, some directed to the Muslims, and others reaching to non-Muslims. There has been increased social action, building of schools, health facilities, and relief food distribution. Moreover, proselytization is carried out through print media, broadcasting, increased formation of Missionary organizations, and organization of public debates (Mihadhara). Joseph M. Mutei, St. Paul's University, Kenya

Talha Ibn Obaidullah (RA)

Talha Ibn Obaidullah (may Allah be pleased with him) was one of the early reverts to Islam and among the ten blessed with the glad tidings of Paradise by the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be to him). He was a wealthy businessman and used to travel to different places for trade and commerce. It was during one of his trips to Syria that he met a Christian monk who informed him about the coming of the last prophet, who according to the scriptures, would appear in the land of Arabia.

The news was interesting for Talha and soon after his return to Makkah he realised that the story told by the monk was going to affect his life as on his return he learnt that Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) had started claiming himself as a Prophet and Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him) was by his side. He was so sure of the character and honesty of both, the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him)  , that after having analysed the whole situation he said to himself, “These two people can never be partners in anything wrong or false.” He immediately went to Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him)  to enquire about the veracity of the claims and then Abu Bakr took him to the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), where he declared his faith and said the Shahadah.

The road ahead for Talha (may Allah be pleased with him) after his reversion to Islam was replete with hurdles, obstacles, persecution and violence. The Quraish were surprised and furious over his reversion and tried every possible way to make him turn back from the religion of Islam. The strongest resistance Talha (may Allah be pleased with him) faced was from his own mother who went totally berserk after learning his son’s reversion as she had hoped that he would one day become the leader of the community because of his excellent and outstanding qualities and virtues.

Masud Ibn Kharash witnessed the sorry state of Talha (may Allah be pleased with him)   and the brutal persecution he met with at the hands of Makkans and by his own mother. He reported that one day he was making saee (running) between Safa and Marwa and then there appeared a crowd pushing and shoving a young man with his hands tied at the back. There was an old woman in the crowd who lashed the young man repeatedly and hurled abuses at him. On being enquired it was known that the young man was Talha (may Allah be pleased with him), the old woman was his mother and such inhumane treatment was because of the choice he made by accepting the religion that Muhammad brought. However all the disturbing and bone-chilling torture meted out to Talha (may Allah be pleased with him)   made him even more resolute and stronger in his faith and made the Makkans utterly failed in their attempt (The story of Talha (may Allah be pleased with him)   has a question for all of us: are we willing to endure everything with a brave heart and sublime faith when faced with the same situation?). Even the love for his own mother could not deviate and deter him from following the truth. With the passage of time, the relentless persecution became intensified and finally when it became extremely difficult to endure, Talha (may Allah be pleased with him) migrated to Abyssinia.

Talha (may Allah be pleased with him) was extremely generous and always looked for the ways to please Allah. It was on the unlimited generosity of Talha (may Allah be pleased with him) that the Messenger of Allah gave him the title of “Talha of goodness and bounty” and “Talha of generosity.” He used to support financially many of his relatives and friends and gave generously to the poor and destitute who cannot fend for themselves. Besides helping, he even disencumbered many with the loans they have incurred and released people from the shackles of debt. He even arranged for those who could not find the means to get married. Wealth which generally is a sense of satisfaction, boast and pride for many was more of a cause of distress for Talha (may Allah be pleased with him). His wife narrated that one day he looked very disturbed and distressed. On being asked he replied that his riches and wealth is the cause of distress and said, “How can a man think of his Lord and Sustainer when he goes to sleep with his wealth in his house?” His wife advised him to distribute and donate all his wealth to all the needy and the destitute. By midnight he distributed everything he had and finally slept well with a light heart. One of the companions of the Messenger said, “I accompanied Talha Ibn Obaidullah on journeys and stayed with him at home and I have not found anyone who was more generous with money, with clothes and with food than Talha.”

Because he was sent for one of the missions outside Madina, Talha (may Allah be pleased with him)  missed the first battle fought for Islam, the Battle of Badr. On his return to Madina he became upset with the opportunity he missed to fight alongside the Messenger of Allah. However when he got the chance to partake in the second battle, the Battle of Uhud, he fought valiantly and proved his mettle in the battlefield as well. At Uhud, when the tables were turned against the Muslims and the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) was dangerously exposed, it was Talha (may Allah be pleased with him) who came for the rescue of the Messenger and repelled the Makkan fighters by fighting bravely. He supported and shielded the Messenger with his left arm and valiantly wielded the sword by his right hand. The incident caused Talha (may Allah be pleased with him) more than seventy wounds over his body which eventually made him unconscious. Thereafter the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be to him) said, “Whoever is pleased to see a man still walking on earth who had completed his span (of life), let him look at Talha Ibn Obaidullah.” Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him)  was very much pleased with the heroics Talha displayed at the Battle of Uhud and whenever after that there was a mention of Uhud, Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him) used to say, “That day, that entire day, belonged to Talha.”

By Kamran Shahid Ansari
Source: http://islam.ru/en/content/story/talha-ibn-obaidullah-ra

Isis seize and kills dozens in strongholds around Mosul to quell uprising

Islamic State targets former members of security forces, suspected resistance fighters and civilians, numerous sources report

Islamic State has seized and killed dozens of people in areas around Mosul that it still controls in an apparent bid to quell opposition and instil fear as opposition forces march on the group’s last Iraqi stronghold.

The United Nations, Kurdish forces and occupants of Isis-held areas all said they had evidence of fresh atrocities from the group. Isis has embraced a rule by terror since its militants took control of swaths of Iraq and Syria, committing and publicising massacres, attempted genocide of religious minorities and dissidents, widespread sexual enslavement, torture and child abuse.

The latest killings seem mostly targeted at former members of the security forces who Isis suspects might rise up against it, suspected resistance fighters or civilians who resist orders.

The group had allowed some members of the police to “repent” of their former allegiance and hand in their weapons when it took control, but its commanders are now said to be on high alert for plots.

In the town of Tel Keyf, dozens of former police officers were arrested and taken away two days before the push for Mosul began, said Ibrahim Ghazi, an officer in the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan party who iscollecting intelligence from Isis-controlled areas.

“Daesh [Isis] took 90 former police officers to Mosul and no one to this day knows what has happened to them,” Ghazi said. “These former officers were the ones who repented when Daesh took their town and, in return, they were spared.”

The UN’s human rights spokesman reported the killing of 50 former police officers in a building outside Mosul on Sunday, although he did not provide further details so it was not clear if they included some of the Tel Keyf officers.

He said Iraqi security forces discovered the bodies of 70 civilians last Thursday in houses in the village of Tuloul Naser, which lies south of the city, and had reports that 15 civilians were killed and their bodies thrown into the river in another village.

“We very much fear that these will not be the last such reports we receive of such barbaric acts,” said the UN spokesman, Rupert Colville.

Colville said the new allegations and information had come from civilians and established sources in northern Iraq that the UN had used in the past, who could not be named for their own security.

In another atrocity, Isis fighters reportedly shot dead three women and three girls who were lagging behind a group of civilians whom the terror group was moving to the city. The women and children were delayed because one of the girls, who was subsequently shot, was disabled.

Civilian casualties have been a concern for aid and rights groups since planning began for the battle of Mosul, which began last week after months of preparation.

As many as a million civilians still live in the city and its environs and humanitarian officials expect tens of thousands to flee in the first few weeks of fighting.

The battle pits up to 6,000 Isis fighters dug in around Mosul against 30,000 troops from a broad coalition including the Kurdish peshmerga, the Iraqi army and special forces, Shia militias allied with Iran, US warplanes and military advisers, and Turkish forces positioned to the north of the city.

Human rights officials believe Isis is moving residents into the city to use them as human shields as the noose tightens around Mosul and the killings are designed to discourage locals from rising up against the group.

Commanders recently killed dozens of senior fighters for planning a rebellion, and Isis is likely to be suspicious of former security officials with weapons training.

A man who recently escaped Hamam Ali, south of Mosul, said a relative told him 200 men, mostly former police officers, had been killed by Isis as the Iraqi army closed in. “These officers were the ones who repented in the past and handed over their pistols, or if they didn’t have them paid a $2,000 fine,” said the man, who asked not to be named to protect his relative.

He said six men from a nearby village of Bab al-Tob were also executed after refusing to evacuate when the army attacked. “They were taken away by Isis, then shot dead.”

The killings were in line with past atrocities carried out by the group in its rampage across the Nineveh plains of northern Iraq, famous for their religious diversity. It evicted the vast majority of the area’s Christian population and launched a campaign of genocide against the Yazidi community, capturing thousands of women and girls who were then sold into sexual slavery.

When it captured Saddam Hussein’s hometown of Tikrit, the group carried out a mass slaughter of up to 1,600 Shia army cadets in its single worst atrocity of the wars in Syria and Iraq. Isis also destroyed many shrines and heritage sites.

More evidence of crimes is likely to be unearthed as the self-proclaimed caliphate recedes into the desert. Several mass graves were uncovered in the Yazidi homeland of Sinjar when it was recovered from Isis earlier this year.

Concerns have also mounted over possible abuses or revenge killings of suspected Isis members by the militias taking part in the campaign. The Shia militias in particular have been implicated in a range of violations such as forced disappearances and displacement after defeating Isis.

Combat inside the densely populated urban centre of Mosul will be particularly challenging, since the militants have had more than two years to prepare for an assault.

So far, at least 5,000 people have been displaced from Mosul’s outskirts amid the ongoing operation, including hundreds who fled to poorly equipped camps in Syria. Refugee camps near Mosul that have already been prepared can house up to 60,000 people.

“People who have fled from surrounding villages and towns tell us they’ve been driven to despair, waiting long days and weeks of hunger before they could flee to safety,” said Wolfgang Gressman, the Norwegian Refugee Council’s chief in Iraq. “Once again we call on the warring parties to put the safety and protection of Iraqi civilians as their top priority. This long, protracted nightmare has to stop.”

By Tuesday, Iraq’s elite counterterrorism units had advanced to within just over a mile of Mosul’s eastern edge, with Isis militants launching counterattacks to distract the advancing troops. Last week the terror group hit the city of Kirkuk, and had launched attacks on the desert town of Rutba.

Why is the battle for Mosul significant?

Mosul is Islamic State's last urban stronghold in Iraq, and the assault is the most critical challenge yet to the group's caliphate.
Since Isis leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi declared the establishment of a caliphate from the city in June 2014, Mosul has been central to the group’s ambitions to spread its ruthless interpretation of Islamic law throughout the Arab world and beyond.
Victory over Isis appears very likely, but there are concerns about what comes next: how to provide for up to 1.3 million refugees and how to re-establish governance in a city brutalised by tyranny.

Source: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/25/islamic-state-atrocities-reported-around-mosul-says-un

Islam in Armenia

Islam began to make inroads into the Armenian Plateau during the seventh century. Arab, and later Kurdish, tribes began to settle in Armenia following the first Arab invasions and played a considerable role in the political and social history of Armenia.[1] With the Seljuk invasions of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Turkic element eventually superseded that of the Arab and Kurdish. With the establishment of the Persian Safavid Dynasty, Afsharid Dynasty, Zand Dynasty and Qajar Dynasty, Armenia became an integal part of the Shia Persian world, while still maintaining a relatively independent Christian identity. The pressures brought upon the imposition of foreign rule by a succession of Muslim states forced many lead Armenians in Anatolia and what is today Armenia to convert to Islam and assimilate into the Muslim community. Many Armenians were also forced to convert to Islam, on the penalty of death, during the years of the Armenian Genocide.

History
Arab invasions

The Muslim Arabs first invaded Armenia in 639, under the leadership of Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah, 18,000 Arabs penetrated the district of Taron and the region of the Lake of Van.[3] Prince Theodoros Rshtuni led the Armenian defense. In about 652, a peace agreement was made, allowing Armenians freedom of religion. Prince Theodoros traveled to Damascus, where he was recognized by the Arabs as the ruler of Armenia, Georgia and Caucasian Albania.[4]

By the end of the seventh century, the Caliphate's policy toward Armenia and the Christian faith hardened. Special representatives of the Caliph called ostikans (governors) were sent to govern Armenia. The governors made the city of Dvin their residence. Although Armenia was declared the domain of the Caliph, almost all Armenians, although not all, remained faithful to Christianity. In the beginning of the eighth century, Arab tribes from the Hejaz and Fertile Crescent began migrating to and settling in major Armenian urban centers, such as Dvin, Diyarbekir, Manzikert, and Apahunik'.[5]

Medieval

The Muslim element in Armenia grew progressively stronger during the medieval period. Following the Byzantine defeat at Manzikert in 1071, waves of Turkic nomads making their way from Central Asia and northern Iran penetrated and eventually settled throughout the span of Armenia and Anatolia.[6][7]

Under Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire ruled in accordance to Islamic law. As such, the People of the Book (the Christians and the Jews) had to pay a tax (Muslim also pay a higher tax called: Zakat) to fulfill their status as dhimmi and in return were guaranteed religious autonomy. While the Armenians of Constantinople benefitted from the Sultan's support and grew to be a prospering community, the same could not be said about the ones inhabiting historic Armenia. During times of crisis the ones in the remote regions of mountainous Western Armenia were mistreated by local Kurdish chiefs and feudal lords. They often also had to suffer (alongside the settled Muslim population) raids by nomadic Kurdish tribes.[8] Armenians, like the other Ottoman Christians (though not to the same extent), had to transfer some of their healthy male children to the Sultan's government due to the devşirme policies in place.[9][10] The boys were converted to Islam and educated to be warriors in times of war.


Under Persian Empires

The Persians Safavids (who had changed from being Sunni to Shia Muslims by then), established definite control over Armenia and far beyond since the time of Shah Ismail I in the early 16th century. Even though they often competed with the Ottomans over the territory, what is today Armenia always stayed an integral part of Persian territory, during the following centuries until they had to cede it to Russia following the Russo-Persian War (1826-1828). Many Armenians joined the Safavid functions, in the civil administration and the military (the so-called ghulams) since the time of Shah Abbas the Great. Especially amongst these elite soldier units, the ghulams (literally meaning slaves), many of them were converted Armenians, alongside the masses of Circassians and Georgians. Before joining these functions, whether in the civil administration or military, they always had to convert to Islam, like in the Ottoman Empire, but the ones who stayed Christian (but couldn't get to the highest functions) did not have to pay extra taxes unlike the Ottoman Empire.

As a part of Abbas his scorched earth policy during his wars against the Ottomans, and also to boost his empire's economy, he alone deported some 300,000 Armenians from the Armenian highland including the territory of modern-day Armenia, to the heartland of Iran.[11] To fill in the gap created in these regions, he settled masses of Muslim Turcomans (nowadays Azerbaijani people) and Kurds in the regions to defend the borders against the Ottoman Turks, making the area of Armenia a Muslim dominated one. His successors continued to do more of these deportations and replacements with Turcomans (Azerbaijani's) and Kurds. The Safavid suzerains also created the Erivan Khanate over the region, making it similar to a system as was made during the Achaemenid times were satraps would rule the area in place of the king letting the entire Armenian highland stay Muslim ruled, until the early 19th century.

By the time the Persians had to cede their centuries long suzerainty over Armenia, the majority of the population in what is now Armenia were Muslims. (Persians, Azerbaijani's, Kurds and North Caucasians)


Soviet period

With the historical provinces being subsumed within the borders of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the remainder of Armenia became a part of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Armenia. A small number of Muslims were resident in Armenia while it was a part of the Soviet Union, consisting mainly of Azeris and Kurds, the great majority of whom left in 1988 after the Sumgait Pogroms and the Nagorno Karabakh War, which caused the Armenian and Azeri communities of each country to have something of a population exchange, with Armenia getting around 500,000 Armenians priorly living in Azerbaijan outside of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic,[12] and the Azeris getting around 724,000 people who were forced from Armenia and Nagorno Karabakh.[12] Since Armenia gained its independence in 1991, the majority of Muslims still living in the country are temporary residents from Iran and other countries. In 2009, the Pew Research Center estimated that less than 0.1% of the population, or about 1,000 people, were Muslims.[13]

Cultural heritage

A significant number of mosques were erected in historical Armenia during the period antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the modern age, though it was not unusual for Armenian and other Christian churches to be converted into mosques, as was the case, for example, of the Cathedral of Kars.


In the territory of the modern Armenian republic, only a single mosque, that of the Blue Mosque, has survived to the present-day.

The Qur'an

The first printed version of the Qur'an translated into the Armenian language from Arabic appeared in 1910. In 1912 a translation from a French version was published. Both were in the Western Armenian dialect. A new translation of the Qur'an in the Eastern Armenian dialect was started with the help of the embassy of the Islamic Republic of Iran located in Yerevan. The translation was done by Edward Hakhverdyan from Persian in three years.[14] A group of Arabologists have been helping with the translation. Each of the 30 parts of Qur'an have been read and approved by the Tehran Center of Qur'anic Studies.[15] The publication of 1,000 copies of the translated work was done in 2007.

The Cistern of al-Kawthar and the River of al-Kawthar

What is al Kawthar? Is it only for the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him)?.

Praise be to Allaah.  

Praise be to Allaah, blessings and peace be upon the noblest of Allaah’s creation and upon his family and companions and those who follow him. 

The word kawthar in Arabic refers to great abundance. 

In Islamic terminology it has two meanings: 

1 – It is a river in Paradise which Allaah has given to His Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him). This meaning is what is meant in the verse where Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): 

“Verily, We have granted you (O Muhammad) Al-Kawthar (a river in Paradise)”

[al-Kawthar 108:1] 

This is how the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) interpreted it. It was narrated by Muslim in his Saheeh (607) that Anas (may Allaah be pleased with him) said: Whilst we were with the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), he dozed off then he raised his head and he was smiling. We said, “Why are you smiling, O Messenger of Allaah?” He said: “A soorah has been revealed to me.” And he recited (interpretation of the meaning): 

“Verily, We have granted you (O Muhammad) Al-Kawthar (a river in Paradise)…”

[al-Kawthar 108:1] 

to the end of the soorah. Then he said: “Do you know what is al-Kawthar?” We said: Allaah and His Messenger know best.” He said: “It is a river that my Lord has promised to me in which there is much goodness. And it is a cistern to which my ummah will come on the Day of Resurrection.” 

Al-Tirmidhi (3284) narrated from Ibn ‘Umar (may Allaah be pleased with him) that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Al-Kawthar is a river in Paradise. Its banks are made of gold and its bed is of pearls and rubies…” al-Tirmidhi said: It is hasan saheeh; it was classed as saheeh by al-Albaani in Saheeh Sunan al-Tirmidhi, 3/135. 

2 – It is a great cistern – a tank for holding water – which will be set up in the place of gathering on the Day of Resurrection, to which the ummah of Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) will come. The water of this cistern will come from the river of al-Kawthar which is in Paradise, hence it is called the Cistern of al-Kawthar. The evidence for that is the hadeeth narrated by Muslim in his Saheeh (4255) from Abu Dharr, that “into the Cistern will flow two pipes from Paradise.” The apparent meaning of this hadeeth is that the Cistern will be next to Paradise so that the water from the river that is inside Paradise will be able to flow into it, as Ibn Hajar said in al-Fath 11/466. And Allaah knows best. 

But is it only for the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) to the exclusion of other Prophets, or not? 

With regard to the river of al-Kawthar from which water will flow into the Cistern, there is no report of any other Prophet having anything like it, apart from our Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him). Allaah states that He has blessed him with it in Soorat al-Kawthar, so it is likely that this is only for our Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and not for any other Prophet. 

With regard to the Cistern of al-Kawthar, it is well known among the scholars that it is only for our Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him). Among those who stated this was al-Qurtubi in al-Mufahhim. But al-Tirmidhi (2367) narrated that Samurah said: The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Every Prophet will have a cistern and they will be looking to see who has the largest number of followers coming to him, and I hope that I will have the largest number.” All the isnads of this hadeeth are weak (da’eef), but some of the scholars ruled that it is acceptable because it has so many isnads, as al-Albaani said in al-Saheehah, 1589. Some of them ruled that it is weak (da’eef). Even if this hadeeth cannot be proven, it is not unlikely that the Cistern will also be only for our Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) to the exclusion of others. And Allaah knows best. 

The characteristics of the river that is in Paradise and the Cistern that will be set up in the place of gathering were narrated in the saheeh Sunnah. The characteristics of the river of al-Kawthar that will be in Paradise include the following: 

Al-Bukhaari narrated in his Saheeh from Anas (may Allaah be pleased with him) that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Whilst I was walking in Paradise, I saw a river whose banks were domes of hollow pearls.” I said, “What is this, O Jibreel?” He said: “This is al-Kawthar which your Lord has given to you.” The angel struck it with his hand and its mud or its perfume was of the most fragrant (or pure) musk. 

In al-Musnad (12084) it was narrated from Anas (may Allaah be pleased with him) that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “I have been given al-Kawthar, and it is a river that flows on the face of the earth. Its banks are domes of pearls and it is not covered. I struck its dust with my hand and its dust was the most fragrant (or pure) musk, and its pebbles were pearls.” Classed as saheeh by al-Albaani in al-Saheehah, 2513. 

According to another report narrated in al-Musnad (12827) also from Anas, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) was asked about al-Kawthar and he said: “That is a river which Allaah has given to me, in Paradise. It is whiter than milk and sweeter than honey, and in it are birds whose necks are like the necks of camels.” ‘Umar said: “Those are soft birds.” The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Eating them is even softer, O ‘Umar.” Classed as saheeh by al-Albaani in Saheeh al-Targheeb wa’l-Tarheeb, 3740. 

With regard to the features of the Cistern that will be in the place of gathering, they include the following: 

Al-Bukhaari (6093) and Muslim (4244) narrated that ‘Abd-Allaah ibn ‘Amr said: The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “My Cistern is (as big as) the distance of a month’s (journey). Its length and width are equal and its water is whiter than milk and its scent is better than musk. Its drinking vessels are like the stars of the sky and whoever drinks from it will never thirst again.” 

In Saheeh Muslim (4261) it is narrated from Anas (may Allaah be pleased with him) that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “In it can be seen vessels of gold and silver whose number is as the stars of the sky.” According to another report, “More than the number of stars in the sky.” 

It is also narrated in Saheeh Muslim (4256) from Thawbaan (may Allaah be pleased with him) that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) was asked about its drink and he said: “It is whiter than milk and sweeter than honey. Two pipes feed into it from Paradise, one of gold and the other of silver.” 

There is no doubt among the scholars that the ahaadeeth about the Cistern reach the level of being mutawaatir (i.e., narrated by so many people from so many people that it is inconceivable that they could all agree upon a lie). It was narrated from the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) by more than fifty of his companions. Al-Haafiz ibn Hajar listed the names of the Sahaabah who narrated these ahaadeeth in al-Fath (11/468). And al-Qurtubi said in al-Mufahhim Sharh Saheeh Muslim: “Every Muslim has to understand and believe that Allaah has singled out His Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) to be given the Cistern, the name and features of which and its drink are mentioned in the well known saheeh ahaadeeth which, when taken together, constitute definitive knowledge. 

With regard to where the Cistern will be located in the land of gathering: 

The scholars differed concerning this matter. Some said that it will be after the Siraat (bridge across Hell). Others said that it will be before the Siraat. This is the view of the majority and is more likely to be correct – and Allaah knows best – because some of those who come to it will be taken to Hell, and if it were after the Siraat they would not be able to reach it because they would already have fallen into Hell – we seek refuge with Allaah. 

We must also draw attention to a very important and serious matter which is that not everyone who belongs to the ummah of Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) will attain the honour of drinking from the Cistern of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him). The ahaadeeth clearly state that there are some people among this ummah who will be driven back harshly from the Cistern – we ask Allaah to keep us safe from that. Who are the ones who will drink and who are the ones who will be pushed away? 

The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) has answered this question clearly in such a way that no one has any excuse. Muslim narrated in his Saheeh (367) from Abu Hurayrah that the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) came to the graveyard and said: “Peace be upon you, O habitation of believing people. We will join you soon, if Allaah wills. Would that we had seen our brothers.” They said, “Are we not your brothers, O Messenger of Allaah?” He said: “You are my companions. Our brothers are those who have not yet come.” They said: “How will you recognize those among your ummah who have not yet come, O Messenger of Allaah?” He said: “If a man has a horse with a white blaze and white feet among horses that are all black, don’t you think that he will recognize his horse?” They said: “Of course, O Messenger of Allaah.” He said: “They will come with white foreheads and white hands and feet because of wudoo’. I will have reached the Cistern ahead of them and men will be driven away from my Cistern as stray camels are driven away. (I will say), ‘Let them come,’ and it will said to me, ‘They changed after you were gone,’ so I will say, ‘Away with them!’” 

In al-Bukhaari (6528) and Muslim (4243) it is narrated that Abu Haazim said: I heard Sahl say: I heard the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) say: “I will reach the Cistern ahead of you. Whoever comes to it will drink and whoever drinks from it will never thirst again. Some people will come to me whom I will recognize and they will recognize me, but then a barrier will be placed between me and them.” Abu Haazim said: al-Nu’maan ibn Abi ‘Ayyaash heard me narrating this hadeeth and said: “Is that how you heard Sahl say it?” I said, “Yes.” He said: “I bear witness that I heard Abu Sa’eed al-Khudri add: and he [meaning the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him)] said: ‘They are from me.” And it will be said; “You do not know what they did after you were gone.” And I will say, “Away with those who changed after I was gone!”’” 

It was narrated by al-Bukhaari (2194) and Muslim (4257) from Abu Hurayrah that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “By the One in Whose hand is my soul, I will drive men away from my Cistern as strange camels are driven away from a cistern.” 

Al-Qurtubi (may Allaah have mercy on him) said: Our scholars (may Allaah have mercy on them) said: Everyone who apostatizes from the religion of Allaah or who introduces innovations with which Allaah is not pleased and did not give permission for is one of those who will be driven away from the Cistern. Those who will be most forcibly driven away will be those who differed from the majority of Muslims and split from them, such as the Khaarijis and Raafidis of all stripes, and the Mu’tazilis and anyone who followed their ways. The same applies to the evildoers and oppressors who tried to extinguish the truth and kill its followers and humiliate them, and those who openly committed major sins and took the matter of sin lightly, and all those who followed deviant whims and desires and innovation. Al-Tadhkirah by al-Qurtubi, 306. 

So we must strive to follow the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and not go against him in any way, in the hope that Allaah will honour us by allowing us to drink from this blessed Cistern. Otherwise what regret can be greater than the regret of the one who is pushed away from before the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and suffers unbearable thirst but is not allowed to drink that cool water, then his loss is further compounded by the prayer of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) that he be driven far away? We seek refuge with Allaah. Imagine this torment – what if you were actually to experience it? 

We ask Allaah to bless us and our Muslim brothers will guidance to follow the Sunnah and to avoid bid’ah (innovation) and sin. Ameen. Praise be to Allaah, the Lord of the Worlds. 

See al-Qiyaamah al-Kubra, 257-262; al-Jannah wa’l-Naar, 166, 167 – both by Shaykh ‘Umar al-Ashqar. Fath al-Baari by al-Haafiz Ibn Hajar, 11/466.

Source : https://islamqa.info/en/48995

Germans visit mosques to learn about Islam

Muslim community opens doors of mosques to non-Muslims, and imams answer questions about Islamic faith, culture

BERLIN

Germany’s Muslim community opened the doors of its mosques to non-Muslims Monday to encourage dialogue and help overcome misunderstandings about Islam.

Nearly 1,000 mosques across Germany took part in "Open Mosque Day”, an annual event organized by Islamic associations in the country.

Ahmet Fuat Candir, Turkey’s religious services attaché in Berlin, said conflicts in the Middle East and terrorist attacks have sparked fears and anti-Muslim sentiments in Germany.

“The best way to dispel fears about Islam is to have more dialogue. Islam is not what they see on their televisions. Islam is a religion of peace and love,” he told Anadolu Agency at Berlin’s historic Sehitlik Mosque.

During the event, imams made presentations about Islamic faith and culture and answered visitors’ questions.

With a population of 81.8 million, Germany has the second-largest Muslim population in Western Europe after France. Among the 4 million Muslims in the country, 3 million are of Turkish origin.

Source : http://aa.com.tr/en/europe/germans-visit-mosques-to-learn-about-islam/657617

Islam in Georgia

Islam in Georgia was introduced in 654 when an army sent by the Third Caliph of Islam, Hazrat Usman, conquered Eastern Georgia and established Muslim rule in Tbilisi. Currently, Muslims constitute approximately 9.9%[1] of the Georgian population. According to other sources, Muslims constitute 10-13% of Georgia's population.[2]

In July 2011, Parliament of Georgia passed new law allowing religious minority groups with “historic ties to Georgia” to register. The draft of the law specifically mentions Islam and four other religious communities.[2]

Mosques in Georgia operate under the supervision of the Georgian Muslim Department, established in May 2011. Until then the affairs of Georgia's Muslims had been governed from abroad by the Baku-based Caucasus Muslims Department.[3]

In 2010, Turkey and Georgia signed an agreement by which Turkey will provide funding and expertise to rehabilitate three mosques and to rebuild a fourth one in Georgia. While Georgia will rehabilitate four Georgian monasteries in Turkey.[4] The Georgia-Turkey agreement will allow the reconstruction of the historical Azize mosque in Batumi, Ajaria demolished in the middle of the last century. Turkey will rehabilitate the mosques at Samtskhe-Javakheti and Akhaltsikhe regions, Kobuleti District, build the Azize mosque burned down in 1940 and restore the Turkish bathhouse in Batumi.

History

Emirate of Tbilisi

The Arabs first appeared in Georgia in 645. It was not, however, until 735, when they succeeded in establishing their firm control over a large portion of the country. In that year, Marwan II took hold of Tbilisi and much of the neighbouring lands and installed there an Arab emir, who was to be confirmed by the Caliph of Baghdad or, occasionally, by the ostikan of Armīniya.

During the Arab period, Tbilisi (al-Tefelis) grew into a center of trade between the Islamic world and northern Europe. Beyond that, it functioned as a key Arab outpost and a buffer province facing the Byzantine and Khazar dominions. Over time, Tbilisi became largely Muslim.

Timurids

Between 1386 and 1404, Georgia was subjected to invasions by the armies of Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur, whose vast empire stretched, at its greatest extent, from Central Asia into Anatolia. In the first of at least seven invasions, Timur sacked Georgia's capital, Tbilisi, and captured the king Bagrat V in 1386. In late 1401, Timur invaded the Caucasus once again. The King of Georgia had to sue for peace, and sent his brother with the contributions. Timur was preparing for a major confrontation with the Ottoman dynasty and apparently wished to freeze the currently prevailing situation in Georgia, until he could return to deal with it more decisively and thoroughly at his leisure. Thus, he made peace with George on condition that the king of Georgia supply him with troops.[5]

Turkish and Iranian Period

The Safavid dynasty was in constant conflict with the Ottomans over full control and influence in the Caucasus. From the early 16th to the course of the second half of the 18th century, the Safavids had to deal with several independent kingdoms and principalities, as Georgia was not a single state at the time. These entities often followed divergent political courses. Safavid interests were largely directed at Eastern (the kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti) and Southern (the kingdoms of Samtskhe-Saatabago) Georgia while Western Georgia came under Ottoman influence. These independent kingdoms became vassals of Persia as early as in 1503.[6]

On May 29, 1555, the Safavids and the Ottoman Empire concluded a treaty at Amasya following the Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–55) by which the Caucasus was divided between the two. Western Georgia and the western part of southern Georgia fell to The Ottomans, while Eastern Georgia (comprising the kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti) and the (largest) eastern part of southern Georgia fell to Safavid Iran. The bulk of Georgia and the region which had historically always been the most dominant stayed therefore in the Iranian sphere. This partition of the Caucasus and therefore including Georgia under Islamic rule was again confirmed in 1639.

In 1703, Vakhtang VI became the ruler of the kingdom of Kartli. In 1716, he adopted Islam and the Safavid ruler confirmed him as King of Kartli. However, at a decisive moment Vakhtang was ordered to discontinue military campaigns, leading Vakhtang to adopt a pro-Russian orientation, though the Russian failed to tender him the promised military aid.

For several centuries, the Georgian kings and aristocrats converted to Islam and served as courtiers to the Iranian Safavid, Afsharid and Qajar dynasties, who ruled them.[7]

Demographics

The Muslims constitute from 9.9% (463,062)[1] to 10-13%[2] of Georgia's population.

There are two major Muslim groups in Georgia. The ethnic Georgian Muslims are Sunni Hanafi and are concentrated in the Autonomous Republic of Adjara of Georgia bordering Turkey. The ethnic Azerbaijani Muslims are predominantly Shia Ithna Ashariyah and are concentrated along the border with Azerbaijan and Armenia.

The Meskhetian Turks, also a Sunni Hanafi group, are the former inhabitants of the Meskheti region of Georgia, along the border with Turkey. They were deported to Central Asia during November 15–25, 1944 by Joseph Stalin and settled within Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan. Of the 120,000 forcibly deported in cattle-trucks a total of 10,000 perished.[8] Today they are dispersed over a number of other countries of the former Soviet Union. There are 500,000 to 700,000 Meskhetian Turks in exile in Azerbaijan and Central Asia.[9][10]

There are also smaller numbers of Muslims in Georgia belonging to other ethnic groups of the South Caucasus, such as Ossetians, Armenians, and Pontic Greeks (divided between Caucasus Greeks and Turkish speaking Urums). These are mainly descended from Ottoman-era Christian Orthodox converts to Turkish Islam. Many of Georgia's Muslims defined as 'Ottoman' following Lala Mustafa Pasha's Caucasian campaign that led to the Ottoman conquest of Georgia in the 1570s were actually of Armenian or Pontic Greek origin whose ancestors in Eastern Anatolia had adopted Turkish Islam. One prominent example of an Ottoman Muslim from Georgia of Caucasus Greek origin was Resid Mehmed Pasha, who ironically played an important role in suppressing the 1822-33 Greek War of Independence (see also Greek Muslims and Armenian Muslims).